Impact of sea power upon history Essay

Introduction â€Å"The profound influence of sea commerce upon the wealth and strength of countries was clearly seen long before the true principles which governed its growth and prosperity were detected. † (Mahan 2004) Water covers over three-fourths of the earth’s surface. The entire human civilization lives on the remaining one-fourth area of earth. And only 3% of the entire water present on the earth’s surface is fresh water. This leaves most of the remaining part of earth’s water area, as large salty water bodies everyone knows by the name of seas or oceans. These are the facts known to all, but few really come to know and appreciate the power that seas have wielded in the development of civilization. Before man ventured out into the sea for traveling, he was just a semi-barbaric creature, with limited trading and social skills. As humans decided to venture beyond to uncharted sea territories, and discovered new lands and newer civilization, the world started to get close and hence the progress of mankind, other than strictly in the biological sense, came into picture. But, progress was not the only thing which sea brought; sometimes it also brought diseases like plague and big destructive wars to people residing on its shores. This paper will analyze all these issues, and will attempt to look at the effects these events brought to the civilization as a whole. â€Å"The history of Sea Power is largely, though by no means solely, a narrative of contests between nations, of mutual rivalries, of violence frequently culminating in war. † (Mahan 2004) History of Navigation History of Navigation can be traced back to centuries. Merchants in Egypt and Mesopotamia used to build large commercial vessels to carry and trade goods, more than 5500 years ago. In Egypt, sea voyage are even recorded in hieroglyphics, which can be dated back to 3200 BCE. One can take this as the starting point to trace the beginnings of navigation as a commercial pursuit. The first Western civilization in history, which is known to have developed the art of navigation at sea were the Phoenicians, more than 4,000 years ago. The popular stories of Helen of Troy were all related to sea travel. Phoenicians were in fact the first to use Pole Star for navigation, according to some accounts. Still under overcast skies, the navigation was usually based on sheer guesswork and intuition, till in about 2000 years ago, when Chinese created the first magnetized needle compass. This technique spread across the world in about a thousand years. In 12th and 13th centuries the science of making proper nautical charts and celestial almanacs began. By the 15th and 16th centuries, aggressive exploration of the world of the world started with explorers like Columbus getting funds from their respective Emperors to explore and enslave newer lands (Spera & Strom 2002). Nevertheless, it is wrong to think that the early explorers used to sail into the unknown without any idea of their final destination. It is true though that while searching for a specific land or route, the explorers were often surprised at the new lands they discovered. This was because many times the country they were seeking was only known in legend or rumor, the most famous example being Columbus, in the recent times. While the entire world is now charted and studied thoroughly, sea does not hold any less influence. The destruction brought by Tsunami is a very recent event. And even Mahan’s lines about sea and war, mentioned above, still hold true, as the countries still are always protecting themselves against attacks from other countries. Famous Historical battles Countless battles have been fought over the sea shaping the civilization, by up throwing older empires and making newer one. One of the most famous older battles is the Battle of Thermopylae between the Greek and Persians, changing the course of the entire war. As is mentioned in the section above, the aggressive exploration started in the 15th and 16th centuries, to enslave newer and older countries. Before this the exploration of the sea was usually only trade-oriented. Many of the 16th century explorations were funded by the reigning Monarchs who wished only to increase their area of reign (Stafford 2005). Major battles that were fought in this period were between English, Dutch, French and Spanish Monarchy. The popular battles were the Anglo-Dutch war 1665-1667, war England and France against united Provinces 1672-1674, between France and the entire Europe in1674-1678, battle of the Spanish succession 1702-1713 i. e. The Sea battle of Malaga, Sea battles between Britain and Spain 1748, Seven years war which establishes the English Supremacy over the seas 1756-1763, Naval war in America and West Indies in 1778-1781 which led the way to the American Revolution etc (Mahan 2004). These wars led to the building and destruction of colonies, and in turn exposed the people in the colonies to a wide array of culture and newer ideas which were previously only prevalent in the Europe, and had led to them being superiors over other cultures. Diseases brought by sea. Diseases is not a term usually associates with the sea, even though the possibilities are huge. However, the most destructive spread of Plague can be attributed to the seas and trade routes. Plague is one of the most destructive as well as the most incomprehensible disasters for humanity. While there is no direct relation between sea and plague, yet the spread of plague with sea from one to other port cities is a very relevant domain. The earliest and the best documented history of Plague was that of the Justinianic plague in the mid-sixth century. The Justinianic plague generally followed trading routes and therefore, was especially brutal to coastal cities. This plague originated either in Ethiopia, moving through Egypt, or in the Central Asian steppes, where it then traveled along the caravan trading routes. Finally through either of these locations the disease quickly spread throughout the Roman world and beyond (Smith 1996). Another very infamous Plague closely resembling, but much more destructive was the Black Death in 1348. The effect of sea on Plague is even worse in this case. The Plague started in China and made its way west across Asia to the Black Sea by 1347. One theory states that a group of infected Tartars besieged a Genoese outpost on the coast. Tartars harassed the trapped townspeople by hurling the dead bodies of their comrades over the town walls spreading the epidemic among the Genoese. The panicked inhabitants fled the scene by ship showing up in the ports of northern Italy and bringing the Black Death to Europe (www.eyewitnesstohistory. com). Conclusion The effect of sea on mankind has both – the positive effects of exchange of trade and ideas; and the negative effects of destruction and sometimes fatal diseases. One thing is clear however, no matter what the situation was, the mankind always managed to surge ahead learning newer things and forging newer relations. This has in the end brought only positive influences to the mankind in the longer run. References Books Mahan A. T, â€Å"The Influence of Sea Power Upon History†, 2004, Gutenberg. Stafford J, â€Å"Some Principles of Maritime Strategy†, February 16, 2005, Gutenberg Magazines Spera G, Strom S. R, â€Å"The Back Page: A Brief History of Human Navigation†, Crosslink Volume 3, Number 2, 2002, http://www. aero. org/publications/crosslink/summer2002/backpage. html Journals Smith C. A, â€Å"Plague in the Ancient World: A Study from Thucydides to Justinian†, The Student Historical Journal, 1996-97, http://www. loyno. edu/~history/journal/1996-7/Smith. html Websites â€Å"The Black Death, 1348,† EyeWitness to History, www. eyewitnesstohistory. com, 2001.

Explain how Hill and Golding present death in I’m the King of the Castle and Lord of the Flies respectively? Essay

Hill and Golding both utilise the techniques of symbolism, varied settings and physical death of the character to present death. Overall I think that Hill generally presents death more effectively than Golding, because she generally provides more development throughout her novel, which ultimately leads to the death of Kingshaw. Hill and Golding both use the techniques of symbolism dead stating that â€Å"the inside of its mouth was scarlet† with the adjective â€Å"scarlet† interesting as it has connotations of death and of blood. I think this description of the crow is also a subtle form of prolepsis as the crow is initially portrayed as a normal crow, but as Hill describes the crow further; it is evidently a symbol of death, much like Warings. What is interesting to note about the crow is that it is also described as having â€Å"ragged black wings†- the word ragged could symbolise the aftermath of violence, much like Kingshaw’s exposure to violence later on in the novel and the adjective black is a symbol of death. Another aspect of symbolism regarding the crow is when the crow â€Å"circles over Kingshaw†, symbolically death looms over Kingshaw. This is comparable to the symbolism of death in Lord of the Flies where â€Å"The Lord of the Flies† also symbolises death: one example of this is when the Lord of the Flies states â€Å"we’re going to have fun†- it is a statement, rather than a question, an imperative. The â€Å"fun† that is described refers to evil, ultimately the death of Simon. Another description of the Lord of the Flies describes that is particularly important is when Simon looks at the Lord of the Flies and sees â€Å"blackness† within, a â€Å"blackness that spread†. Perhaps this symbolises not only death, but death spreading throughout the island as other characters are killed. I feel this description also has significance because both Hill and Golding use â€Å"colours† to symbolise death, the colour black. The authors also differ as Hills descriptions are far more graphical, for example the crow, whereas Golding is far more subtle in his description of The Lord of the Flies. I believe that Hills graphic description is more effective at portraying death, her descriptions are far more explicit but some readers may argue this to be a disadvantage as her symbols are too clichà ©d. I think Golding is not as effective because his descriptions are a little more implicit, and hence loses some of the value that his symbol provides in portraying death. Another way in which Hill shows death is through the use of settings. Warings is described as â€Å"being in full night† with â€Å"the yew branches [†¦] overhanging the windows†. Hills typical gothic description to a modern reader is a clear signal of death, especially the Yew branches which also symbolise death. The â€Å"moonlight† suggests a sense of coldness in Warings, like a dead person for example. Warings is also described as â€Å"dark† and â€Å"damp† which emphasises Hills initial description of Warings. This is comparable to Golding’s description â€Å"of the unfriendly side of the island†- a â€Å"place of terror†. This is an explicit meaning, terror and death are linked. Arguably, Castle Rock is the heart of the â€Å"unfriendly side of the island†, Castle Rock is described as being â€Å"the end of the island†, literally the furthest away from the island once compared to paradise. The word â€Å"end† echoes the end of life- supported by the statement â€Å"we shan’t dream to much hear† , perhaps Golding implicitly stating that no one dreams in Castle Rock because death is the end of dreams. Once again I feel that Hill has been more successful at portraying death. Whilst her terms are clichà ©d, she adds a greater degree of subtlety in her descriptions as well, for example the â€Å"moonlight†, the implicit means have greater depth to them, unlike Golding’s explicit descriptions. Finally Hill also presents death in a physical manner as well as through description, through the death of Kingshaw. When Kingshaw dies, it shows death on a physical level, but it may also have a deeper meaning. It was evident from the start of the book, that Kingshaw’s death loomed, however the death signifies the death of the protagonist and victory for the antagonist. This is arguably the death of â€Å"innocence†. This is comparable to Golding’s portrayal of Piggy’s death, describing Piggy’s moments before his death: â€Å"he heard it before he saw it†- the verb heard suggests once again Piggy’s death always loomed, rather like Kingshaw’s. Unlike the death of Kingshaw however, Piggy’s death signals the death of rational, not innocence. I think that Hill has been more effective at portraying death because her description of Kingshaw creates far more emotion rather than the death of Piggy, Golding’s descriptions are too dull. In summary both authors portray death through the use symbolism, settings and physical death. I think that portrayal of death is very effective, especially Hills description. Hill develops her characters throughout her novel, and when Kingshaw dies it is a genuine shock to the reader. Because of Golding’s lack of development, Piggy’s death is not as emotional as Kingshaw’s.

Nature of Industrial Buying: Industrial Marketing

URDANETA CITY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ACCOUNTANCY AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION San Vicente West, Urdaneta City 2428 Pangasinan, Philippines Telefax No. (075) 568-7612 Website: www. ucu. edu. com BY: IAN JOSEPH ROBISO MARC TON ALEXIS PEREZ MARITA LABIANO KENT NOEL JAVIER ILENE GONZALES BEVERLY ROSARIO RICHARD SUMERA LOVELY SORIA BSBA-III Major in MARKETING MANAGEMENT SUBMITTED TO: MR. LADI GEORGE L. GASCON INSTRUCTOR Nature of Industrial Buying: Industrial Marketing Buy Phase in Industrial Buying * Buying is an organizational decision making process There are 8 Phases in Buying Decision Process * In Industrial market the buying decision making process observable sequential stages, understanding these phase helps developing appropriate selling strategy The Buying Decision of organization is influence by environmental factors, organizational factors, interpersonal factors and personal factors: * Personal – e. g. Age, Education, Income, Personality, Risk Attitude, Culture * Inter-Per sonal – e. g. Interest, Authority, Status, Empathy, Persuasiveness * Organization – e. g.Objective, Policies, Procedures, Organization Systems and Structure * Environment – e. g. Level of Demand, Economic Viewpoint, Technology Change, Political Development, Social Responsibility 8 Phases in Industrial Buying * Identify the problem – industrial marketers identify problems in buying organization and suggest how problem is? * General need Description – once the problem is recognized next is to resolve the problem. For technical products, the technical. * Product Specification – developed a precise statement of the product or service, selecting right suppliers recommend. Suppliers Research – search of potential suppliers from vertical hubs, functional hubs, direct extra link to major suppliers ,trade * Analyze Suppliers Proposal – once the qualified suppliers decided, the buying organization obtains the request for proposals. * Sup pliers Selection – Evaluation of proposals of competing suppliers and select suppliers * Selection of Order And Routine – placing orders w/ selected suppliers, frequency of the order placement, levels of inventory follows. Performance Review – performance feedback of the suppliers take place and post purchase evaluation Organizational Purchase Situation * New Task – a Situation that the company is buying the item for the first time. The buying organization will typically have had little experience with the product or service. The risk involved is more, decisions may take longer time and top management is involved. * Modified Re- Buy – This situation occurs when the organization is not satisfied with the performance of the existing suppliers.Search information about alternative source of supply. The change I supplier is likely to include several representatives, including mid level management and evaluative criteria are analyzed. * Straight Re-Buy à ¢â‚¬â€œ Buying products or services continuously and purchases that are made in the past. Repeat orders with the supplier. The reordering process may be completely automated or done routinely by clerical personnel. Purchases are often handled under a contract and price or consistently the dominant evaluative criteria. Participants in the Business Buying ProcessParticipants in the organizational buying process play as  many as seven different roles, namely those of  initiator,  influencer, approver, user, decider, buyer and  gatekeeper * Initiators – Recognize a problem or a need. The Initiator can be any individual in buying firm. * Influencers – Individuals influence the buying decision. Technical people such as quality control engineers, design engineers have considerable influence on purchase decision. * Deciders – The actual buying decisions are made by the deciders. They are one or more individuals involved in the buying decision.Senior executives m ay become deciders. * Buyers – Buyers obtain quotations from suppliers, evaluate, negotiate, process purchase, orders, advance delivers and implement purchase policies. * Users – Users  also  play a  role  of  initiators Individuals who use products or services Define specifications of  needed products * Approvers – Approver  endorse and agree to the purchase  and  also play a  role of  deciders * Gatekeeper – Gatekeepers control the flow of  information regarding products and services and control the buying center Assistants or  junior person  of  purchase managersKey Members of Buying Center * Top Management Executives * Managing Director, Presidents, Vice President or  General managers * Approve purchase, decide guidelines and purchase policy * Technical People * Technical people are design  engineers, production, quality control,  R&  D  managers * Specify products, technical evaluation, feedback on product supp lied, negotiate with suppliers * Purchase/Material Department Senior executives, junior levels,  purchaser officers or assistants * Coordinate with technical people, top  management, accounts as well the suppliers or vendors * Accounts/Finance for finalizing the  financial approvals, mode of  payment  and  insurance  of bank  guarantees * Marketing * Are the influencers in the buying process Summary * The industrial marketing need to understand the purchasing objectives and purchasing activities of the industrial buyers. The industrial buyers are influenced by both purchasing objective of the firm and personal objectives. The industrial buyers are influenced by many factors, the major factors like environmental factors, organizational factors, interpersonal factors and personal factors. * There are 3 common types of buying situations including new task, modified re-buy and straight re-buy. * There are 8 phases of buying decision making process include Initiator, Infl uencer, Approver, User, Decider, Buyer and Gatekeeper. The industrial markets should identify the key members of buying centre in each buying decision.

Hotel Concept Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Hotel Concept - Essay Example A brand represents the core of the customers awareness of the hotel, its services and products. Keller (1997) explained that the positive or negative perceptions that are created and persuade a customer to avail or not to avail services at a certain hotel stand for the brand equity. A customers excellent experience with a certain hotel brand creates a strong representation of that hotel brand, whereas an awful experience wears away that strong brand. A prospective customer does not require first-hand experience with a certain hotel brand to create an impression of that hotel brand. Brand equity makes use of the media or other marketing techniques to strengthen mass exposure of their hotel brands. This means that people are aware of which among the hotels are classified excellent and poor even if they haven’t experienced being guests in those hotels. So, a strong need for hotel management is formed into creating the best and strong brand of hotel for business longevity as well as increase in profit. Creating strong hotel brands is believed to be one of the key factors in considering the success of the business. Hotel managers therefore need to study what composes brand equity in the hotel industry and exhibit a technique for how do they effectively measure hotel brands offering a decision-making tool for them in order to take full advantage of the value of their brands. The main rationale for building brand equity as the keystone for the success of the business is that it aids counterbalance competition by distinguishing their product, permitting hotel owners of a premium charge, and promoting customer loyalty. Aaker (1991) argued that defining precisely what composes a brand, nonetheless, is not as easy a job as stating what a brand should bring about. At some point, the concept of a brand is that a brand comprises a name, a symbol, a logo, and a trademark. However, pointing out brand

Ooredoo Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ooredoo - Coursework Example All employees must obey and follow the general work ethic while the other corporate social culture requires that employees should respect one another. Structure is another framework as posited by Peters (2011). This involve the structure of the organization with a well layout from the top managers and directors to subordinate works (Palatkovà ¡, 2011). It also outline the chain of command defining how orders move within the organizational structure. Strategy is another framework where the company maintain and build a competitive, differentiated advantage and cost leadership over competition (Peters, 2011). Another framework is style. In this case, it refers to the mode of leadership a company adopts. For example, the style can be decentralization or centralization within the company where an employee can talk to the management at any time. Singh (2013) asserts that staff is another framework where the company need to have employees with different capabilities. For example, the considerations with regard to this include age, culture and religion variations. Another framework is skills where the company should have an excellent training program for employees and a special one for mangers (Palatkovà ¡, 2011). Through this, employees and managers will have the necessary competence for working in the company (Peters, 2011). Finally, system is another framework that involve the daily activities and procedures that the company staff members engage in to get job done. For example, this may involve setting up goals for each employee, assessing the employee to see what they have done so far and finally rewarding hardworking

Collaborative Teaching Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Collaborative Teaching - Research Paper Example This article provides information on the impact of collaborative and self-teaching for primary and early childhood education teachers. The article explores the effect of changes in the learning and teaching in a sociology paper for first years for the ECE students. Teacher educators wanted to know the effect of the paper changes influenced on learning and teaching the students. The teachers had a collaborative teaching relationship for three years creating an environment, which recognized the voice of the students through student-teacher engagement.Research question:What are the strengths and challenges of collaborative teaching in enhancing teaching and learning? The research question is important as it seeks to identify the successes and challenges of collaborative teaching, which is the basis for this research. Research hypothesis:Collaborative teaching influence teaching and student learning. The aim of the research was to test different approaches to teaching and learning in big classes through self-study by examining personal values and professionals practice. The research took three years from 2010 to 2012 involving two-teacher educators and a primary and ECE first-year teachers. The students were enrolled in the paper with the title of ‘Whanau’, which was taught to both the ECE and primary teachers doing Bachelor of Education degree. The participants worked together, shared feelings of satisfaction, joy, disappointment, and frustration and made room for solutions.

Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Israeli-Palestinian Conflict - Essay Example d be we should be prudent in how and what form they can provide financial or political support for Israel, without exempting them from the same accountability demanded of all nations and churches regarding human rights and international law. Lee von Bockmann, James. â€Å"Review: Philosophical Perspectives on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, edited by Tomis Kapitan.† Arab Studies Quarterly 21.4 (1999): 105-109. ProQuest. Web. 17 Mar. 2014. Lee von Bockmann reviews the book that Kapitan edited, Philosophical Perspectives on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, has the strengths of revealing the dark side of Israel as a terrorist state and a secondary genocide maker because of its violent tactics and consequences. He discusses diverse philosophical perspectives that offers different philosophical lenses for the understanding and resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. Mollov, Ben, and Chaim Lavie. â€Å"Culture, Dialogue and Perception Change in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict.† International Journal of Conflict Management 12.1 (2001): 69-87. ProQuest. Web. 17 Mar. 2014. Mollov and Lavie conducted a survey on Palestinian and Israeli students to understand how intercultural dialogue on people-to-people levels can result to more positive perceptions of one another. These perceptions can lead to common interests that can support long-term peace aspirations in Israeli-Palestinian Conflict and other similar conflict settings. Naqib studies the economic effects of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict on the collapse of the Oslo Accord. He asserts that the Israeli policies and actions have destabilized the Palestinian economy by limiting trade, taxation, labor market flows, and access to land, which resulted to income decline, poverty, and unemployment in Palestinian territories. He argues that two important issues are the Palestinian right of sovereignty and the right to liberate their economy from colonial reliance on Israel. Roy examines the paradigm shifts that

Reading response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 20

Reading response - Essay Example ies and to socialize the industries of the country.’ (Hillquit, 18) The platform of the party is to create awareness among the masses and is to educate them about political class-consciousness. However, as the American workers are dubious of the Socialist movement, they are approached through the Labor Party. The Labor Party can gain their confidence and then and lead them to the path of Socialism. The difference between the Socialist Party in the United States and the Communist Party of Russia is the scope of their manifesto. The Socialist party wants to emancipates all thus extending the benefits of industrialization to the masses in the United States. On the other hand the Communist Party in Russia holds the authority in few hands with the State being the channel that decides what and how much should be passed on to the masses. Thus these tow philosophies differ from one another as the two countries are different from each other, but as far as racialism in the United States is concerned than the Socialist Party takes the

STD's in today's society Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

STD's in today's society - Research Paper Example The infections have become popular in the United States. The documentation shows increased popularity among teenagers who are sexually active (Weinstock, H., Berman, S & Cates, W. (2004).). Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) have become popular in the current society. The infections usually occur through sexual contact with infected individuals (Mandal, 2013). The most common way of transmission is through vagina. However, it is also possible to transmit through oral and anal sex. Some of the STD includes gonorrhea, Chlamydia, and syphilis. Moreover, the organisms causing the diseases include virus, and bacteria. In the society, anybody is disposed to the infections. However, those individuals that engage in unprotected sexual intercourse or exposure are at higher risk of getting the infections (Mandal, 2013). Furthermore, the risk increases in those people with multiple sexual partners, those that do not use condoms during sexual activities, drug abusers, and the commercial sex wor kers (Mandal, 2013). The most common symptoms of infections include discharge and ache from sexual parts ion male and female, pain during sexual activities and during urination, blisters, scaly rash, and reduced weight in infection such as HIV/Aids (Mandal, 2013). A reflection on causes of STD and effects on the body helps in understanding how they affect today’s society. ... The effect appears with a painless red sore called a chancre that occurs on the genital area (The Nemours Foundation, 2013). Moreover, the infection may lead to enlarged lymph nodes. However, the sore depends on types of sexual contact. For example, oral sex results in a sore developing in the mouth (The Nemours Foundation, 2013). The sore acts as a way in which the disease is transmitted between humans. The transmission usually takes place without being noticed. The sore heals for a period of one month even without treatment. However, failure to treat infection leads to progression to the second stage. In the next stage, bacteria enter the blood and spread to different parts of the body. In these areas, it causes effects such as rash, fever, headache, loss of appetite, sore throat, anorexia, reduced weight and enlarged lymph nodes (The Nemours Foundation, 2013). Moreover, there is the development of rash in almost all parts of the body. On the other hand, there is a development of p atches known as condylomata on the wet areas such as opening, anus, and vagina (The Nemours Foundation, 2013). Any contact with these areas may lead to infection. The infection at this stage may affect liver, kidneys, and eyes and sometimes cause meningitis (The Nemours Foundation, 2013). Failure to treat the problem at this stage leads to the last phase. In the final stage, there is usually no indication, but individuals have infections and highly contagious (The Nemours Foundation, 2013). Symptoms may appear several years and lead to damage of the eyes, large blood vessels, heart, bones, and the central nervous system (The Nemours Foundation, 2013). Symptoms that develop late may include memory loss, poor brain function, impotence, and loss

Performance Appraisal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Performance Appraisal - Essay Example During the process of appraisal, each employee performance is reviewed against the objectives and standards for the financial year as agreed at the previous appraisal meeting. It is very important for career and succession planning purposes for the employees, jobs that are crucial and for the entire organisation. Despite the fact that performance appraisal is mainly used for motivation of employees, it has a number of purposes which include: development of positive attitude towards work, behavior development, communication and alignment of employees and organization objectives and boosting the positive relationships between the employer and the employees (Grote 107). Each organization has its own performance appraisal system. This work would focus on the development of a performance appraisal system for the Verizon Wireless. As it would turn out later, the appraisal system depends on the kind and nature of the job being appraisal. Technical and complex jobs require more appraisals. In such cases, appraisal is mainly used to retain the employees. This paper would develop an appraisal system for a customer service post (Grote 111). Retail customer support representative is expected to handle the customers issues related to the company. Based on the performance, the retail customer support representative would be appraised in a number of ways. Following an excellent job, the company, through the human resource department would appreciate the work done by retail support representative by offering one or combination of the following items or rewards. The person would be offered an award-winning training and competitive salary if he or she displayed high level of quality in key areas such as time consciousness, communication and presentation skills. The nature of appraisal would depend on the area(s) perfectly done (Grote 113). The employee who would display perfection in key areas such as time management or

Assignment 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Assignment 2 - Essay Example Some of the businesses still have the concepts and practices that date back a hundred years or more, when societies were far less dynamic than they are today. Like every aspect, markets and businesses should also accept the changing time. A brand name is a name given to the business which creates the image and reputation of the business in the market and for the customers. Branding is a major task in marketing, as in marketing a brand name is a major selling tool of the business and is one of the most important components of the total product personality. Brand is the personality that identifies the business. It can be a name, symbol, design or any feature of the business that portrays their good service and differentiates them from other businesses. The concept of branding has been coming form years and has long been one of the major weapons of the business (Franzen and  Moriarty, 2008, p. 360). Once the business starts to be recognized by the brand name or symbol, it can be eithe r modified or changed too. When it is about the changing marketing techniques and customers, businesses have been seen as changing their brands and taking them quite seriously than they ever were, traditionally the concept of brands was different than what it is today and thus the business behaviors towards the concept of brands have also changed. There are many ways in which the determined shift in the branding process has been observed and clued in the past few years. In the modern world, the brand name is how the customers look at the brand, their products and the business. The brands have started to play a unique mind game with the minds of the targeted customers. Unlike the previous era, the brands have now been given immense importance and most of the business products and success is decided by their brand name. Quality and price have become a secondary option for the customers, and brand name is the most important tool. Brand image is nothing but the business’ characte r that conveys emotional value and not just a mental image (Keller, 2008, p. 57). Previously, the brands were not taken to be this important for the businesses. They were considered as merely a positive point for the business through which they can reach to the customers and create a relation with them that lasts for long and serves them with the right product. The market and the customers too, accepted the brand name as an advantage for the business. In the market, the business with the brand name would be prioritized higher than other businesses. And the customers would check out the products of the branded business first. This trend was carried out until the perceptions of the customers started changing and immense transformations were seen in the marketing trends. In the post modern world, the perceptions of customers have changed greatly in many ways which is why the branding techniques have changed too. The customers have created the perception that the brand name of the compa ny delivers its quality of products, efficiency in producing, their pricing strategies and effective service. The customers perceive the brand image to be the tool that defines all the aspects of the business. Today, in the modern world, the brand image is all that the customers seek for. The business knows how they brand name and image play on the minds of the customers

Digital Bangladesh Essay Example for Free

Digital Bangladesh Essay Bangladesh is a developing country. She achieved independence 42 years ago but still she depends on foreign helps regarding many issues. She is trapped in a lot of problems such as poverty, over population, unemployment, corruption, health hazard, food and accommodation crisis, illiteracy etc. But, the present government has promised and started taking steps to change the situation and has determined to build a â€Å"Digital Bangladesh†. The sense of Digital Bangladesh is not clear yet. We assume that the gov. wants to make Bd fully digitalized by the year of 2021 through application of third generation information and communication technology. It was an election manifesto(2008) of Awami League, one of the leading political parties of Bangladesh. The philosophy of Digital Bangladesh comprises ensuring people’s democracy and human rights, transparency, accountability, establishing justice and ensuring delivery of gov. services to the citizens through maximum use of technology with the overall improvement of the daily lifestyle of people of all classes. The government further emphasized on the four elements of DB Visions which are: human resource development, people development, civil services and use of information technology in all possible sectors. It is not only e-governance or e-commerce or e-banking or operating a country wide mobile phone network, it is a combination of all of them. It is a country-wide application of 3G ICT to institutionalize the best management practices in every sectors and sub-sectors. The scope of Digital Bangladesh is very wide. It includes the following substances: democracy and effective parliament, political framework, decentralization of power and people’s participation, good governance through establishing rule of law and avoiding political partisanship, corruption free society, empowerment and equal rights for women, economic development and initiative, infrastructural development, environment etc. To digitalize Bangladesh with 3G technology in 12 years is fairly ambitious. It needs strong commitment and strategic planning for sustainable Digital Bangladesh. The starting must focus on developing infrastructure in terms of hardware, software and manpower. Merely buying millions of computers and distributing among several thousand workstations in educational institutions, commercial and medical organizations will not digitalize Bangladesh. Local qualified manpower must be available to run the system without depending on foreign experts. To produce such human resources, government must assign highest priority to the  improvement of science, technology and management education and develop our own manpower. Unless we perform the basic terms, Digital Bangladesh will make Bangladesh highly vulnerable by making dependent on those nations that manufacture, control and distribute ICT. Sustainability is more imp than starting. If we fail to manage a sustainable digital Bangladesh with our own resources, Digital Bangladesh 2021 will harm rather than benefit the nation. But if we succeed, Bangladesh will achieve independence literally.

Critical Management Studies (CMS) Debate on Power

Critical Management Studies (CMS) Debate on Power The rate of change within contemporary business environment has intensified over the last few decades, which in turn have resulted in significant strategic implications for organisations of all types. According to Ford et al (2010), critical management studies (CMS) has been an important radically different development to mainstream management theory that offers alternative thinking to the management of contemporary organisations. Drawing upon Wickert Schaefer (2015), it is noted that CMS is based on critically appraising and sceptically analysing the contemporary management practices that are based on profit maximisation rather than social and ecological sustainability. The proponents of CMS have argued that although there has been improvement within management literature away from the explicit organisational characteristics towards implicit factors, however the underlying factor that dictates allocation of resources within organisation remains creation of value for the firm (King Learmonth, 2014). It is argued that due to this underlying managerial power in shaping the organisational behaviour therefore the contemporary management studies should be critically appraised for their links with social injustice and environmental degradation (Bergstrom et al, 2009). The review of CMS as an alternative to the mainstream management theories and practices has pointed out the importance of power and its distribution across the different actors related with the organisations (Alvesson, 2010). According to Ford et al (2010), CMS highlights the prevailing power structures that dominate contemporary organisations and their management, which in turn results in systemic decline in moral obligations concerning people and ecology that should be justified from the lens of profitability. The aim of this report is to critically explore the critical management studies (CMS) debate concerning power. In order to achieve this aim, the report has used multiple schools of thoughts from proponents and critics of CMS to provide a balanced review of literature. The report has used inverted funnel approach in critically appraising the literature concerning role of power within CMS. Power has been defined in a number of ways within the management literature due to the degree of influence from its origins in a number of other disciplines. According to Ailon (2006), due to the diversity of definitions, it can be suggested that power suffers from tautological issue within management literature. However, the review of the popular definitions have noted that there is a high degree of overlap within them and therefore understanding the underlying basics can result in better development of the topic (Bachrach Baratz, 1962). The very basic definition of power has been developed by Dahl in 1957, which encapsulates that A has power on B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do. Although it is a very basic definition that focuses on the negativity of power, however it provides the basis understanding of the concept. This is the reason that Brown et al (2010) has pointed out that this definition has become the basis of more elaborated c onceptualisation of the topic of power within the context of management studies. The review of the literature has pointed out that traditionally power was seen to be arising from explicit organisational factors within managerial theories, however proponents of CMS have pointed out that there are implicit organisational factors that can be the source of such power. According to Ailon (2006), power is seen as the influence of any set of individuals inside or outside of the organisation that can have implications on the people within the organisation. Therefore, it is argued that individuals within organisations have a number of actionable options when faced with any particular decision, however due to the explicit and implicit power structures within the organisation, they tend to conform to undertaking certain actions in comparison with others. Drawing upon Brown Lewis (2011), power is the concept that would influence the actions of individuals that they would not have undertaken in the absence of such power. Power has remained explicitly or implicitly at the heart of a number of management theories and practices that have been developed and reported within the popular management literature. According to Ford et al (2010), management literature has evolved over the decades in the light of the changing macro and micro business environment, where the focus has remained on the development and sustainability of the competitive advantage of the businesses. It is suggested that as management has emerged as a value within contemporary businesses, there has been significant private and public power attached to it that has attracted attention from CMS (Ahonen et al, 2014). It is suggested that as management has been elevated to a powerful position, the overall criticism and scepticism with the current system has become concentrated on the topic. The research has pointed out that traditional management literature has focused on the creation of value for the shareholders of the businesses. According to King Learmonth (2014), this highlights the fact that shareholders have the explicit power to shape the overall long term organisational strategy and organisational behaviour within any given situation. However, it is suggested that such a view of the business has received sharp criticism from a number of areas, where conserving human rights and ecological destruction took centre stage. Drawing upon Erkama (2010), in order to overcome these criticisms, the management literature evolved into arguing that organisations should focus on the value creation for the stakeholders of the firm. Although, stakeholder focus apparently highlights that the demands for a variety of actors that have interest or are influenced by the business are included within managerial decision making (Tadajewski et al, 2011). However, it is noted that there is a high degree of diversity and multiplicity of demands from the stakeholders of the business and therefore their prioritisation is undertaken. The prioritisation of the stakeholders and their demands are undertaken within the context of their ability to achieve profitability for the business. The proponents of CMS have argued that even with the evolution within management literature, the overall managerial decisions are the function of power of shareholders and profitability of the firms. CMS have pointed out that although there is an emergence within management literature regarding importance of human resources, environmental management and corporate citizenship; however all of these aspects are driven out of their links with the profitability and shareholder wealth creation (Mccabe, 2000). It is argued that although there is the perception of increased independence of decision making of the individual human resources, however the power of shareholders dictate the overall acceptable set of decisions while eliminating decisions that would be undertaken by managers in the absence of such an influencing power. Similarly, it is suggested that corporate social responsibility has gained importance in contemporary management literature, however only the areas that can be linked with profitability and creation of positive perception of the business are focused (King Learmonth, 2014). According to Contu Willmott (2003), the companies would self-report the positive community and environmental behaviour to gain a positive perception from the customers and other influencing stakeholders. Despite the fact that large multinational corporations have developed detailed corporate social responsibility plans, there remains disjointed implementation of these plans across the national boundaries based on their impact on the profitability of the businesses (Wickert Schaefer, 2015). Therefore, the countries with stricter legislation and higher understanding of the issues by the customers have a better implementation of CSR policies by the firm in comparison with developed economies. This is the reason, it can be argued that both explicit and implicit power within contemporary organisations dictate the organisational behaviour. There is a great deal of management literature that has focused on the use of organisational structure to achieve the strategic goals of the organisation. According to Alvesson Willmott (2012), traditional management literature has pointed out the use of hierarchal structures, where the power of strategic decision making is concentrated at the top, which is then distributed and diffused through the rest of the organisational structure. The proponents of CMS have argued that such use of structure essentially focuses on the use of autocratic leadership to keep the employees aligned towards achieving the long term goals of the firm. It is suggested that the overall long term goal is divided into isolated goals for different value adding functions of the business, which are then further divided for each individual. As the individual employees are allocated their particular tasks within the hierarchal structure, therefore they are unable to exercise power that can influence the overall o utcome of the organisation. The managerial literature has however evolved over the decades towards the recommendation of flatter and team based organisational structures. According to Ford et al (2010), with the increased competition and industries moving into the mature stages of their lifecycles, it is important for businesses to rely on the human resources for the differentiation of their products and services. The use of team based structures is expected to bring higher level of innovation and creativity within the products and services of the business. The proponents of CMS have argued that even though there is a degree of freedom allowed to the employees in a team based organisational structure, however there is implicit power influencing their decisions so that the outcome can maximise the value creation for the organisation (King Learmonth, 2014). It is suggested that business use this type of power to control the outcome from the organisational teams. The process and culture or monitoring and motivati ng the employees is geared towards limiting overall options available to the employees of the organisation. The concept of personal identity and organisational culture in influencing the behaviour of individuals, groups and organisations has been discussed within CMS. According to Erkama (2010), identity is a set of reflexive narratives that are derived from participation in competing discourses and related experiences. The concept of work identity has been highlighted as the individual or group representation towards being productive for the organisation. According to Tadajewski et al (2011), it can be argued that the overall identity of individuals at work can be determined from their ability and motivation to achieve the organisational objectives. The contemporary management literature has played a pivotal role in developing the work identity as achieving the overall long term goals of the business, which are in turn dictated by profitability. This has been exemplified by the analysis of identity of lawyers. According to Mccabe (2000), lawyers have self-identification of guardians of societal ethics and as trustees of the ethical profession, where they would defend the rights of individuals and other legal institutions. However, at the same time, their work dictates them to develop the identity to be distinctive in offering solutions to their customers that would minimise their liability and minimising the rights of others to achieve competitive positioning for their businesses. Drawing upon Contu Willmott (2003), at individual level lawyers have the identity crisis to offer competitive solutions that would solely benefit their customers while ignoring the implications of their advises on other economic actors. At firm level, lawyers are operating as competitive businesses that are intrinsically motivated through profitability and growth in business. Therefore, these aspects suggest that the contemporary management litera ture promotes the development of identities within professionals that would inhibit their natural decision making towards profitability and creation of value for shareholders. Similarly, it is noted that organisational culture has been promoted as an important managerial tool available for effective and efficient management outcomes. Organisational culture is defined as shared values, beliefs and assumptions that are shared across the organisation that have implications on the combined behaviour of the individuals (King Learmonth, 2014). The proponents of CMS have argued that management literature uses organisational culture to ensure that all the employees of the business would behave in a very similar manner. The organisations with a strong organisational culture would ensure that the employees would undertake their decisions that would result in the short and long term profitability of the business. The focus on organisational culture would also suggest that human resources become dispensable as the new recruits are likely to continue making decisions required to achieve corporate success. The review of CMS literature has noted that the contemporary organisations use routine activities to use disciplinary power to achieve high degree of conformance from their employees. According to Wickert Schaefer (2015), disciplinary power uses processes of comparison and standardisation of individual performance, which determines their compensation and other motivational factors. The individuals that create higher value for the shareholders of the businesses are likely to receive a higher overall cooperative compensation and other motivational factors than their peers. On the other hand, the actions and behaviours of individuals that are not focused on creation of wealth for the shareholders receive lower overall compensation and motivation. This critical gap developed through the processes used within an organisation is therefore used to induce disciplinary power among the individuals. It is suggested that management literature apparently allows for the individuals to have high degree of independence in undertaking decisions that they seem fit for the situation, however due to the disciplinary power they are likely to make similar types of decisions. According to Ailon (2006), the use of organisational processes to shift the burden to decision making from the top management towards individual employees of the business are likely to be the source of disciplinary power. The discipline is enforced through the consistent use of monitoring and surveillance of the individual actions, behaviour and attitude, which are judged as their performance. The research within management literature has pointed out that power within contemporary organisations is embedded in the overall authoritative structure, culture and process of the organisation. According to the proponents of CMS, traditionally organisations had a hierarchal structure where the power was explicitly concentrated at the top (Brown et al, 2010). It is however noted that contemporary management literature has led to the development of team based matrix style structure, where different levels of management are jointly present in strategic and tactical decisions. However, drawing upon Ailon (2006), despite the apparent devaluation of power, there remains a strict guideline within tasks allocated to these teams regarding the overall long and short term objectives of the organisation. Therefore, although there is increased overall degree of decision making among the individuals within organisations, there remains overall pressure to conform among the managers to develop ide as that can become the source of sustainable competitive advantage. This is the reason that CMS literature has pointed out that organisations are structured based on processes and systems that are likely to use the power of shareholders to direct the decision making of the managers and the employees of the organisation. The use of explicit and implicit power within contemporary management literature has been accepted as the source of achieving the long term goals of the organisations. According to Brown et al (2010), the long term organisational goals can be perceived as adding value to the shareholders of the organisation, which can be seen as profitability for commercial organisation. It is suggested that the power in extrinsic or intrinsic forms should be present within the organisation so that it can direct the energies, motivations, skills and competencies of the employees and other resources of the firm to achieve the long term aim and objectives of the organisations. CMS has argued that mainstream management literature present a number of reasons for the use of power within the context of the organisations. There is a group of managerial theories that argue that in the absence of the power, the individuals of the organisation will do negative things. According to Ailon (2006), CMS has pointed out that mainstream literature has suggested that negative employee and individual behaviour can be seen from its normative or moral meanings. In the normative meaning, the individual would conduct actions that would negatively impact profitability of the business. On the other hand, moral meanings suggest that the individual would conduct actions that would be deemed immoral within the society, which in turn would also deteriorate organisational perception. Therefore, both of these cases justify the development of structures, processes and systems that would minimise such individual actions. There are two types of theories within contemporary management that have used this perspective, which include: (a) economically based management theories; and (b) psychological and social based management theo ries. The economically based management theories have argued that individuals are inherently focused on maximising their personal outcomes from any action. This is the reason, according to Theory X and Y, there is a group of individuals that are lazy and lack the motivation to work till their full potential (Bachrach Baratz, 1962). Taylorism has therefore suggested that businesses should develop profit maximisation routines and systems. It is further noted that Agency Theory and Transaction Cost Economics are important theories that have resulted in the use of power to direct employees of the organisations to achieve their desired outcomes (Alvesson, 2010). The psychological and social management theories have pointed out individuals are easily misguided and therefore can lead to immoral behaviour and actions if not directed by the management and organisation. According to Ford et al (2010), the theories that fall within this domain highlight that the organisational way is the only moral way for the individuals to conform. The review of the theories that fall within this domain, it is suggested that individuals can have diverse set of moral understanding of the issues and therefore if they are allowed to make judgements based on their understanding then the overall response of the organisation is likely to be very weak. This is the reason that it is argued that development of systematic organisational mechanism to inhibit personal judgement of morality has been undertaken within mainstream management literature. The organisational cultural theories were developed to develop and strengthen a group wide system of values, beliefs and assum ptions that can lead to conforming attitude from the individual employees (King Learmonth, 2014). There is another school of thought within the management literature that has suggested that if the power is absent to make employees conform to organisational values and goals, then it is likely that employees would make the business work for them. According to Bergstrom et al (2009), individuals are focused at maximising outcomes for themselves, therefore in the absence of any power, it is likely that the employees would misuse the organisational resources to maximise their personal outcomes. This has been exhibited through the examples of managerial greed that has resulted in the demise of large corporations like Enron. Therefore, it is argued that power in some form is likely to exist within organisations due to the resources that they have acquired or developed over time. Either the power can be from organisation acting on the employee or vice versa. CMS has pointed out that organisational power should not be perceived as something that would result in negative or selfish outcomes by the employees. According to Bergstrom et al (2009), power is everywhere within the organisation, however some actors have pervasive power and rest have subtle power. This is the reason that it is argued that power within organisations should be viewed from a critical standpoint, where all diverse areas of power and its origination should be analysed. It is suggested that the diverse stakeholders, actors and institutions surrounding the organisations have different types and levels of power, which should be balanced to achieve effective and efficient results for social and environmental sustainability along with profitability of the businesses. Drawing upon Tadajewski et al (2011), it is suggested that processes should be in place for the counter balance of power among the different groups of actors surrounding the contemporary organisation. In the light of above discussion of the debate regarding power within the context of critical management studies (CMS), it can be concluded that contemporary mainstream management literature is based on the use of explicit and implicit power structures to achieve long term strategic objectives of the organisations. The report has pointed out that traditionally management literature has shown a high degree of power concentration within shareholders of the business, however despite its apparent diffusion, there remain high degree of influence on individual behaviour due to implicit organisational power structures and cultures. The discussion has highlighted that power has been used within mainstream management literature through explicit and implicit means through organisational structure, identity, culture, discipline and conformance. It is suggested that the contemporary management literature fosters behaviour of the individuals that is shaped by the power of shareholders and profita bility. The review of the mainstream management literature has pointed out that the main reason that is highlighted for using organisational power is that without its presence, the individual employee would resort to negative actions both economically and morally.   It is noted within the report that CMS have argued the presence of power across the organisation and its diverse stakeholders, however has suggested that power should be balanced through the deployment of effective and efficient processes and systems. References   Alvesson, M. (Ed.). (2010). Classics in critical management studies. Edward Elgar. Alvesson, M., Willmott, H. (2012). Making sense of management: A critical introduction. Sage. AHONEN, P., TIENARI, J., MERILÄINEN, S. and PULLEN, A., (2014). Hidden contexts and invisible power relations: A Foucauldian reading of diversity research. Human Relations, 67(3), pp.263-286. AILON, G., (2006). What B Would Otherwise Do: A Critique of Conceptualizations of Power in Organizational Theory. Organization, 13(6), pp. 771-800. BROWN, A.D., KORNBERGER, M., CLEGG, S.R. and CARTER, C., (2010). Invisible walls and silent hierarchies: A case study of power relations in an architecture firm. Human Relations,63(4), pp. 525-549. BROWN, A.D. and LEWIS, M.A., 2011. Identities, Discipline and Routines. Organization Studies,32(7), pp. 871-895. BACHRACH, P. and BARATZ, M.S., (1962). The Two Faces of Power. American Political Science Review, 56, pp. 947-952. BERGSTRÃÆ'-M, O., HASSELBLADH, H. and KÄRREMAN, D., (2009). Organizing disciplinary power in a knowledge organization. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 25(2), pp. 178-190. CONTU, A. and WILLMOTT, H., (2003). Re-Embedding Situatedness: The Importance of Power Relations in Learning Theory. Organization Science, 14(3), pp. 283-296. ERKAMA, N., (2010). Power and resistance in a multinational organization: Discursive struggles over organizational restructuring. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 26(2), pp. 151-165. Ford, J., Harding, N., Learmonth, M. (2010). Who is it that would make business schools more critical? Critical reflections on critical management studies. British Journal of Management, 21(s1), s71-s81. King, D., Learmonth, M. (2014). Can critical management studies ever be practical? A case study in engaged scholarship. Human Relations MCCABE, D., (2000). Factory Innovations and Management Machinations: The Productive and Repressive Relations of Power. Journal of Management Studies, 37(7), pp. 931-953. Tadajewski, M., Maclaran, P., Parsons, E. (Eds.). (2011). Key concepts in critical management studies. Sage.# Wickert, C., Schaefer, S. M. (2015). Towards a progressive understanding of performativity in critical management studies. Human Relations, 68(1), 107-130.

Rethinking The Deterrence Theory Criminology Essay

Rethinking The Deterrence Theory Criminology Essay With much popular appeal, the concept of deterrence has been widely accepted and understood, by judges and parliamentarians alike, to be a central tenet in the principles of sentencing and the wider penal system in England and Wales. Significantly, section 142(1) of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 expressly enjoins sentencers to take account of deterrence as one of the purposes of sentencing when determining what and how severe the appropriate punishment in a given case should be. In practice, as deterrence is widely perceived by judges, not only in the English and Welsh jurisdiction, but also elsewhere in the common law world, as a primary means through which to afford public protection, in many cases involving adult offenders, precedence has tended to be given to deterrence over other considerations in the interest of the community.  [3]  Nevertheless, tensions are palpable between deterrence and other sentencing aims.  [4]  The question of, for instance, whether punishment s hould be an end in and of itself, or whether it ought to be understood as a facilitator of the ideal of offender rehabilitation, remains in the front line of critical discourses into sentencing in the contemporary era.  [5]  Thus, it has become increasingly necessary to deliberate upon the worthiness and value of deterrence not only in the context of sentencing but also to the purpose of the entire penal system. Within this context, the following essay will proceed by first providing an overview of the paradigm of deterrence within the broader framework of the contemporary penal system. It will then attempt to identify and question the moral and empirical underpinnings thereof. Further, it argues that from a criminological or sociological perspective, efforts to achieve deterrent effect, in particular where the individual offender is concerned, are in large part counterproductive. Finally, this essay observes, whilst arguing that deterrence as a penological theory is morally and empirically unsound, that it would be impractical to assume that deterrence will be abandoned altogether in English sentencing law in the near future. Rather, the more prudent and reasonable way to approach the matter would be to continue to observe the constantly evolving concept in an era of significant social, cultural, political and economic change. In conjunction with other penal theories, elements of deterrence will appear to remain a highly influential sentencing tool. Exposition of the deterrence theory Deterrence is one of the oldest paradigmss in the history of criminological and jurisprudential inquiry. As early as in the early eighteen century, the primary purpose of state imposed punishments was said to be the reduction of crime, by means of terrifying [potential offenders] into obeying the law.  [6]  The punishment of prison and the deterrence it brings about, by the relinquishment of the fundamental freedoms, were onceived of as the best means of reducing offending in modern society  [7]  . Johnson defines the verb deter as to discourage by terror, to fright from anything.  [8]  Deterrence can also be defined as including two separate aspects, depending on the class of people being directed at, namely individual (specific) deterrence and general deterrence.  [9]  Translated into judicial language in the specific context of sentencing, a Hong Kong judge, HHJ Ching Y Wong SC, drew the distinction thus: A deterrent sentence may be in personam [that is, individual] or in rem [that is, general]. Normally if the circumstances that pertain to an offender are such that the court is of the opinion that it must be brought home to him that he is not to commit such offences again, for example, a repeat offender, a deterrent sentence  in personam  is proper. When an offence is, inter alia, so prevalent or is so serious within its class, and the court is of the opinion that those of like minds are to be strongly discouraged from committing the same or similar offences, then a deterrent sentence  in rem  is called for.  [10]   In simpler terms, specific deterrence is directed at the offender in question and is expected to prevent her from reoffending by the imposition of punishment; general deterrence, on the other hand, focuses on the public at large, and prevents potential offenders from engaging in criminal conduct in the first place.  [11]   With its roots in the classical and utilitarian thinking of crime,  [12]  the deterrence theory is often compared to a cost-benefit analysis performed in the economic field.  [13]  Underlying the theory is the assumption that all offenders, and potential offenders, are by nature rational, the hallmark of their actions being the pursuit of maximum pleasure and minimum pain. It follows that, as offenders choose, rationally and voluntarily, to commit crime, they respond readily to the perceived costs and benefits of their actions.  [14]  As Lundman explains, If their calculations suggest that perceived benefits will exceed possible costs, then rational [offenders] commit [crimes] in anticipation of enjoying rewards. However, if these calculations lead [criminals] to conclude that costs will exceed rewards, then the rational course of action is to seek gratification in ways other than [criminality].  [15]   In other words, if the calculation of the consequences of offending leads to the conclusion that there is more to be lost than there is to be gained from committing crime, the potential offenders should be naturally deterred.  [16]  Thus, within the utilitarian framework criminals are invariably errant, though still rational, individuals whose perversity or anti-social self interests serve to offer some perceived benefits of offending.  [17]  It is in this light that Bentham passionately argues for the usefulness of deterrence, on the ground that the threat of punishment is the force employed to restrain [possible offenders] from commission of crime, from which the pain of punishment might result.  [18]   Underlain by these ideas of rationality and self-interest, for deterrence theorists there are certain qualities necessary to an effective deterrent punishment. As Newburn elaborates on these qualities first enunciated by Beccaria  [19]  , punishment must come with certainty and be enforced consistently, and that it does should be acknowledged by the offender; there must be celerity in the law, with punishment coming as promptly as possible, in order that both the public and the offender himself could see the relationship between the punishment and the offence as inevitably causal; and finally, it must be properly proportionate to the crime, namely one that is relatively mild and moderate and inflicts pain just exceeding the advantage derivable from the crime.  [20]   Moral problems with the deterrence theory An emphasis on deterrence often leads to a harsher sentence than the offender would otherwise be deemed to deserve.  [21]  The Court of Appeal has held, relying on the Strasbourg jurisprudence, that the legitimate object of deterrence can, in appropriate cases, amply justify such sentences.  [22]  It seems apparent that in such cases the sentencing aim of deterrence can be paramount. Whilst weight would, in theory, have been accorded to the interests of the offender, where the alleged crimes are considered as threatening the wider community, the utilitarian theory of deterrence demands that individual rights and proportionality, in its narrow sense, subsume under the societal interests.  [23]   Young is critical of this judicial use of deterrence as a sentence enhancing factor.  [24]  He argues, not unconvincingly, that the theory is arguably inconsistent with fundamental notions of justice.  [25]  Indeed, why a persons liberty need be sacrificed for the educational impact it will have on others is a legitimate question to pose. This concern has been shared by del Vecchio, who emphatically stated that the human person always bears in himself something sacred, and it is therefore not permissible to treat him merely as a means towards an end outside of himself.  [26]   A more fundamental moral weakness of the notion of deterrence pertains to the coherency of its ideological premise rationality. As in the analysis in Part I, deterrence has traditionally built upon the premise that individuals will desist from reoffending because of the fear inherent in the discipline and punishment meted out by the state. In a moral sense, then, a semblance of common reasoning is central to the application of the utilitarian understanding of deterrence. Yet, as the famous philosopher John Rawls persuasively argues, there is no reason to assume that our sense of justice can be adequately characterised by familiar common sense precepts or derived from the more obvious learning principles.  [27]   It seems indeed somewhat simplistic to assume offenders as rational beings before or in the course of committing a crime. As the Home Office rightly conceded in 1990, offenders very seldom weigh up the possibilities prior to their conduct and typically do not act only after on rational premeditation.  [28]  In many instances criminals need to take their decisions hastily. Two young males fighting in a public street, for example, are unlikely to have ever thought about the consequences of their actions in the heat of the moment.  [29]  Moreover, as Cornish and Clarke argue, the decision-making process of offenders is remarkably limited in their understanding of possibilities, potentials and consequences.  [30]  For instance, most petty criminals are often badly informed about the criminal liability, let alone the penalties, associated with the crimes they commit.  [31]  As a result, even accepting that offenders are rational, it would be difficult, if not impossible, f or offenders to have accurately balanced the costs and benefits of the commission of the criminal act.  [32]   The weakness becomes even more obvious in the case of such rarer but usually more horrendous crimes as those involving violence, the offenders of which are characteristically not reasoning. Hudson plausibly argues that crimes of such kind are usually committed without a prior careful calculation of risk.  [33]  Most killings, for instance, are not rationally planned, but are impulsive and driven by strong emotion.  [34]  In other instances, such are crimes that involve intentionality where offenders commit crime regardless of the risk.  [35]   Interestingly, probably comprehending the moral difficulties existing therein, English courts have rarely invoked deterrence as a standalone ground for an otherwise disproportionate sentence. It is often relied on in conjunction with other penal theories. Deterrence has, according to the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights, customarily been recognised as the twin of punishment.  [36]  Thus some commentators have gone further in contending that, in fact, punitiveness resides in the epicentre of the contemporary penal policies supposedly informed by the utilitarian principles of deterrence.  [37]  For them, the current political discourse and policy initiatives [blame] the offenders, [silence] excuses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and [see] the punishment of the wrongdoer as the proper response.  [38]  Deterrence, then, has not been upheld on any principled basis, but has rather been reduced to a morality that has to be upheld whatever the functional benefits.  [39]   As a result, from a philosophical perspective, classical utilitarianism upon which the theory of deterrence is based would seem quite unable to do justice to the mode in which many of our actual ends matter to us.  [40]   The epirical (in)validity of the deterrence theory It seems fair, to say that the empirical literature examining deterrence has not yielded enormous success different studies often tend to contradict each other, on occasions directly and completely.  [41]  Some evidence suggests that swift punishments do not abate the incidence of subsequent crimes any more than delayed punishments, owing to the cognitive capacity of humans to imagine.  [42]  More research efforts have been put into the consideration of the other two aspects of deterrence. By and large, there is some evidence, albeit anecdotal in one way or another, showing that certainty of punishment has a greater deterrent effect than does severity of punishment.  [43]   However, even this is more than what Radzinowicz and King have been prepared to accept. They quite sensibly argue that, more precisely, it is the certainty of detection or intervention, not of punishment, that is the more crucial element in deterrence.  [44]  Lending support to this view, commenting on figures in the United States, Cornish and Clarke suggests that offenders are more likely to be put off by the immediate fear of exposure and being caught, as opposed to the threat of some penalty relatively remote in time.  [45]  Thus it may not be any surprise when Gough concludes that deterrence should only be a minor consideration, if occupying a role to play at all, for the purposes of sentencing.  [46]  What is needed, in Goughs opinion, is tougher enforcement and targeted strategies that increase detection certainty, rather than any toughening of sanctions. On the other hand, there is a more critical view that the reduction of crime in these studies cannot be ascribed to deterrence. What have been influential might well have been the incapacitating effect of the punishment or other myriad variables quite apart from the risks of punishment, including the motive for the crime, the strength of the temptation, the strength of inhibitions or moral revulsion against it.  [47]   In any case, all these studies, deriving as they do from crime statistics, must be interpreted with caution, whether they be supportive or dismissive of the deterrence principles. After all, there are no such things as empirical truths as such.  [48]  In determining whether or not deterrence should be regarded as being beset by empirical difficulties, the entire discussion would prove moot if one does not appreciate the problem of interpreting crime statistics in the first place. Notoriously, any organised way of understanding about crime, criminals and crime control framed in definitional and empirical terms is intricately problematic.  [49]  Ultimately, criminality is a natural by-product of such industrial, capitalist experience as economic growth, the easier availability of social opportunities, and the increased recognition of individual liberties.  [50]  It is essentially a social construct, varying as it does across time, place and people.  [51]  Viewed from such a perspective, deterrence is but part of a means devised by the state to statistically manage the social problem of crime.  [52]  Put in this wider social and political perspective, the extent to which deterrence is, just as punishment, thought to be a fundamentally important social theory inescapably reflects the broader political economy of the urban society in which one lives.  [53]   As such, although crime data and criminal statistics are ostensibly transparent and open manifestations of offending patterns, to divorce the quantifiable empirical data from the broader politicisation of crime would be an unrealistic exercise provided the complex settings in the modern liberal democracy such as this country, in which crime, sociology and political economy are inextricably intertwined.  [54]  Doubts have therefore historically been cast onto the verity of the official figures with the most pessimistic criminological interpretations suggesting that crime statistics are universally doctored, and thus of limited worth to the understanding of the relationship between crime, the state and punishment.  [55]  In the final analysis, imagining crime figures as being free from bias would be to ignore the tension between broad generalization and the specification of empirical particulars,  [56]  and the interpretation thereof will inevitably entails an overly object ive view of an inherently subjective phenomenon.  [57]   The anti-deterrent effects of punishment: a criminological perspective Some criminologists do not merely dismiss deterrence as unconvincing, but have gone further in arguing that, quite far from producing the intended result, fear of punishment might sometimes lead directly to the commission of crime. It is possible that a criminal who has already offended, but not yet apprehended, feels that they have little to lose from further offending, because they have to be punished anyway. As Taylor cites as a striking example, at some point in the last century, a substantial minority of unmarried women in Scotland have been driven to commit infanticide exactly because of the fear of being publicly humiliated as a punishment for adultery.  [58]   For those who have been apprehended and punished, further offending behaviour is still not impossible under the labelling theory, under which criminality is to be thought of as a quality created inevitably when punitive sanctions are applied to behaviour considered to be offending.  [59]  The offender takes on a criminal identity when he is labelled as such by a range of social reactions, including and following the imposition of an official sanction, which has the effect of isolating her from society.  [60]  Her opportunity to live by legitimate means whilst being labelled criminal would quite conceivably be reduced considerably, and resort might then have to be had to illegitimate ways of life. In this way the label is dramatised to the extent that it becomes entrenched and internalised.  [61]  In this light, the labelled, stigmatised and socially isolated, have to accept their status as criminals and rebuild their lives accordingly, leading to a greater degree of devia nce.  [62]   In this sense, punishment within the context of deterrence may in truth be counterproductive in reducing incidence of recidivism.  [63]  With all the negative social interactions that punishment entails, a sentence which speaks to the deterrence of the individual offender appears to reinforce the self-prophecy of criminality, render reintegration into the conventional world difficult, and a criminal career almost inevitable.  [64]  Thus punishment with a deterrent element may ironically result in the promotion of the kind of activities that it is designed to prevent. Conclusion: Abandoning deterrenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦or not? Deterrence has for the most part been discounted as an effective and justifiable approach to sentencing by academics, in particular criminologists, who are often more willing to consider the causes in addition to the consequences of criminal activity.  [65]  However, the popular appeal of the notion as a commonsense approach to sentencing appears to persist to this day. Given the important case of Attuh-Benson,  [66]  it seems unlikely that attempts, however able and sincere, to bring the criticisms levelled against the usefulness of deterrence before the courts would be of any avail. There the Court of Appeal forcefully pronounced that [i]f a different approach is to be adopted it should be in response to guidance from the Sentencing Guidelines Council who may wish to consider this matter.  [67]  After all, it is important to bear in mind that the way in which the state responds to criminality has always constituted an inexorably divisive conundrum with hardly any consensus as to what ought to represent a just punishment.  [68]  And sentencers, even those of the eminence and seniority of the Lord Justices of Appeal, will understandably consider and defer to the legislative objectives set forth in the Criminal Justice Act 2003, one of those being deterrence. Indeed, according to established principles of the common law, this is not an ar ea in which the court should, in the words of Borins DCJ, sitting in the Canadian Supreme Court, pass on the wisdom of Parliament.  [69]  As such, discourses of deterrence are likely to remain a distinguishing feature of the English sentencing policy, as in elsewhere in the world. (4172 words) Table of cases: Canada: Ciccone  (1974) 7  SASR 11  October, 113 Guiller (1985) 48 CR (3d) 226 Luxton  (1990) 58 CCC (3d) 449 Smith (1987) 34 CCC (3d) 97 England and Wales: Attuh-Benson [2004] EWCA Crim 3032 Bieber [2008] EWCA Crim 1601 Brown v Stott  [2001] 2 WLR 817 Holloway  (1982) 4 Cr. App. R. (S) 128 Howells  [1999]  1 All ER  50 Sargeant (1974) 60 Cr App R 74   Zampa  (1984) 6 Cr. App. R. (S) 110 European Court of Human Rights: Ezeh Connors v. United Kingdom  (2004) 39 EHRR 1 Hong Kong: AG v Tang King-ming  [1986] HKLR 211 HKSAR v Hiroyuki Takeda [1998] 1 HKLRD 931 Secretary for Justice v Ma Ping-wah [2000] 2 HKLRD 312

Essay on Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide - Can You Define Murder? :: Free Euthanasia Essay

Can You Define Murder? "And Cain talked with Abel his brother: and it came to pass, when they were in the field, that Cain rose up against Abel his brother, and slew him." (Genesis 4:8) Back in those days, murder was pretty clear cut. If you killed someone, it was called murder. Of course, if you had a reason, then it was justifiable. Back then, it was an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. Or a life for a life. But in these fast paced and politically correct times, is there justifiable murder? Webster's Dictionary says that murder is "the unlawful killing of another human being, especially with premeditated malice." Unlawful killing of another human being. And most people would tend to agree, that there are circumstances in which killing someone else is just fine, and even desirable. But what are those circumstances? What exactly is justifiable killing? Is abortion OK? How about war? Euthanasia? These are topics that are in hot controversy these days, as civil rights groups battle political standings that have been around for dozens of years. Capital punishment is among those instances of justified killing that has been debated for years, and continues to be an extremely indecisive and complicated issue. Adversaries of capital punishment point to the Marshalls and the Millgards, while proponents point to the Dahmers and Gacys. Society must be kept safe from the monstrous barbaric acts of these individuals and other killers by taking their ability to function and perform in our society away from them. At the same time, we must insure that innocent people such as Marshall and Millgard are never convicted or sentenced to death for a crime that they did not commit. In February 1963, Gary McCorkell, a 19 year old sex offender, was scheduled to hang. But just days before his execution, the then Liberal cabinet of Lester Person commuted McCorkell to life in prison. His actual term was only a percentage of that. Less than 20 years later, McCorkell was arrested, tried, and convicted for the kidnapping and rape of a 10-year old Tennessee boy. He was sentenced to 63 years in prison. Once again, his term was reduced, and he moved

Beer Pong for Dummies :: Research Papers

Beer Pong for Dummies Throughout the many years, college students have engaged in many activities to either entertain themselves or pass endless time. These activities have ranged from sports, either intramural or varsity, to various clubs and organizations devoted to students personal interests. While these have sparked interest and lasted a long time, none has exceeded the expectations of the wonderful game of beer pong. As I began to think about ways on approaching this topic I became very excited, but realized that all my information could not be displayed all at the same time. So I decided to take things easy and introduce the topic on a level where everyone can relate to it. My search began the night I received this assignment. I went to the search engine we all know and use so well, Yahoo, and began my search from there. When I typed in the words beer pong into the search box, I received almost two hundred thousand related links. I became even more pleased with this result, knowing that there was so much to tell. Eventually I came across a catching site, known as the National Beer Pong League. There is something of this nature that exists? I wondered so I clicked. Since my exploration I began to find out interesting information about the National Beer Pong League. According to a question and answer section with the founder of the site and group, the league has been around for about a good fifteen years, but just recently they have started to get some recognition. By means of recognition I mean, the government has acknowledged their league and their website has been up and running for the past three years, summer of 2001. The league overall was created by a student attending the prestigious Duke University. In an interview with the founder he states that he started playing and gaining an interest in beer pong â€Å"about Jr. or Sr. year of high school†. Can you believe that he was pre-gamming it before he even stepped on a college campus? That goes to show he started to develop his skills to demonstrate to others. As the founder created this site, the founders name is Jason; his intent was to inform people of the game and also to get a larger fan base than it had already. This site has recognized various ways of playing beer pong, and also he has included a total of fifteen colleges who have been recognized for their school way of playing beer pong, now that’s what I call some good school spirit. Beer Pong for Dummies :: Research Papers Beer Pong for Dummies Throughout the many years, college students have engaged in many activities to either entertain themselves or pass endless time. These activities have ranged from sports, either intramural or varsity, to various clubs and organizations devoted to students personal interests. While these have sparked interest and lasted a long time, none has exceeded the expectations of the wonderful game of beer pong. As I began to think about ways on approaching this topic I became very excited, but realized that all my information could not be displayed all at the same time. So I decided to take things easy and introduce the topic on a level where everyone can relate to it. My search began the night I received this assignment. I went to the search engine we all know and use so well, Yahoo, and began my search from there. When I typed in the words beer pong into the search box, I received almost two hundred thousand related links. I became even more pleased with this result, knowing that there was so much to tell. Eventually I came across a catching site, known as the National Beer Pong League. There is something of this nature that exists? I wondered so I clicked. Since my exploration I began to find out interesting information about the National Beer Pong League. According to a question and answer section with the founder of the site and group, the league has been around for about a good fifteen years, but just recently they have started to get some recognition. By means of recognition I mean, the government has acknowledged their league and their website has been up and running for the past three years, summer of 2001. The league overall was created by a student attending the prestigious Duke University. In an interview with the founder he states that he started playing and gaining an interest in beer pong â€Å"about Jr. or Sr. year of high school†. Can you believe that he was pre-gamming it before he even stepped on a college campus? That goes to show he started to develop his skills to demonstrate to others. As the founder created this site, the founders name is Jason; his intent was to inform people of the game and also to get a larger fan base than it had already. This site has recognized various ways of playing beer pong, and also he has included a total of fifteen colleges who have been recognized for their school way of playing beer pong, now that’s what I call some good school spirit.

Subsistence Agriculture

How is intensive subsistence agriculture distinguished from extensive subsistence cropping? Why, in your opinion, have such different land use forms developed in separate areas of the warm, moist tropics? Intensive agriculture is the primary subsistence pattern of large-scale, populous societies. It results in much more food being produced per acre compared to other subsistence patterns. Beginning about 5,000 years ago, the development of intensive farming methods became necessary as the human population grew in some major river valleys to levels beyond the carrying capacity of the environment using horticulture and pastoralism.The transition to intensive agriculture was originally made possible by water management systems and the domestication of large animals for pulling plows. This allowed farmers to get below the top soil to bring buried nutrients up to the surface. It also allowed farmers to maintain much larger fields of crops. Subsistence agriculture is performed by one family , typically. Enough food is generated for that one family to subsist or survive.This is different than agriculture practiced in western capitalist countries, wherein the product is economically profitable, and not just limited to an amount of food produced that allows one family to subsist. Humid tropic conditions are found over nearly 50 per cent of the tropical land mass and 20 per cent of the earth's total land surface an area of about 3 billion hectares. Tropical Central and South America contain about 45 per cent of the world's humid tropics, Africa about 30 percent, and Asia about 25 per cent.As many as 62 countries are located partly or entirely within the humid tropics. Agricultural systems and techniques that have evolved from ancient times to meet the special environmental conditions of the humid tropics include the paddy rice of South-East Asia, terrace, mound, and drained field systems, raised bed systems (such as the chinampas of Mexico and Central America), and a varie ty of agroforestry, shifting cultivation, home garden, and natural forest systems.These systems share common elements, such as high retention of essential nutrients, maintenance of vegetative cover, high diversity of crops and crop varieties, complex spatial and temporal cropping patterns, and the integration of domestic and wild animals into the system. Changes and land transformation in the tropics are occurring at a much faster rate; in some cases, areas are completely transformed and often degraded beyond economically feasible restoration within one generation.Many of the traditional and ancient systems have been deeply modified or abandoned owing to economic, cultural, and social pressures. Question #2 What economic or ecological problems can you cite that do or might affect the gathering industries of forestry and fishing in North America? What is the maximum sustainable yield? Is that concept related to the problems you discerned? The agriculture, forestry, and fishing sector s are the cornerstone of industries that produce and market food, fiber, and fuel.Collectively, the three sectors make up a huge component of the U. S. economy and are a major employer in the United States. Annually, these industries generate more than $1 trillion and create exports exceeding $68 billion. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) estimates that more than 5. 5 million workers are employed in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. These sectors also consistently rank in the top six most hazardous occupations; fishermen and loggers have the highest fatality rates.Collectively, the three sectors consistently have the highest injury and fatality rates of any U. S. industries, so the overall effect on the safety and health of exposed populations in agricultural, forestry, and fishing worksites is enormous. In population ecology and economics, the maximum sustainable yield or MSY is, theoretically, the largest catch that can be taken from a fishery sto ck over an indefinite period. Under the assumption of logistic growth, the MSY will be exactly at half the carrying capacity of a species, as this is the stage at when population growth is highest.The maximum sustainable yield is usually higher than the optimum sustainable yield. This logistic model of growth is produced by a population introduced to a new habitat or with very poor numbers going through a lag phase of slow growth at first. Once it reaches a foothold population it will go through a rapid growth rate that will start to level off once the species approaches carrying capacity. The idea of maximum sustained yield is to decrease population density to the point of highest growth rate possible.This changes the number of the population, but the new number can be maintained indefinitely, ideally. MSY is extensively used for fisheries management. MSY in most modern fisheries models occurs at around 30% of the unexploited population size. This fraction differs among populations depending on the life history of the species and the age-specific selectivity of the fishing method. However, the approach has been widely criticized as ignoring several key factors involved in fisheries management and has led to the devastating collapse of many fisheries.As a simple calculation, it ignores the size and age of the animal being taken, its reproductive status, and it focuses solely on the species in question, ignoring the damage to the ecosystem caused by the designated level of exploitation and the issue of by catch. Question #3 How, in your opinion, do the concepts or practices of comparative advantage and outsources affect the industrial structure of advanced and developing countries? In economics, the theory of comparative advantage refers to the ability of a person or a country to produce a particular good or service at a lower marginal and opportunity cost over another.Even if one country is more efficient in the production of all goods than the other, both cou ntries will still gain by trading with each other, as long as they have different relative efficiencies. The outsourcing of U. S. jobs overseas is part of an economic movement that promises a better life — indeed, a new beginning — for many people in developing countries. It gives technologically savvy young people in countries like India livelihoods that move them into the ranks of the middle class. On the other hand, workers in industrialized nations are being displaced in large numbers.Comparably well-paying jobs are not being created fast enough to make up for the positions headed offshore. Outsourcing has gained notoriety in recent months because of the accelerating volume of job transfers overseas and the sudden vulnerability of high-tech and service occupations that were once thought immune to trade displacement. Services that used to be nontradable (back-office operations, call centers, data management and accounting sectors) have now been made fully tradable b ecause of advances in communications and computational technologies.Location is increasingly insignificant in the provision of these services. Moreover, the ready availability of large pools of technically capable and computer-savvy workers overseas has eroded what traditionally had been considered the distinct preserve of the U. S. and other developed countries: sophisticated, high-end technologies. Developed countries, too, have been major beneficiaries, since their comparative advantage lies in the trade of manufactures, services, intellectual property and capital. Industrialized countries have been vocal in promoting trade openness in these areas and have fiercely defended the need to respect and enforce intellectual property rights (e. g. , pharmaceutical patents and software).There are, of course, adjustment costs that accompany trade, since segments of local populations are hurt by open markets. Despite these costs, poor countries have subscribed to international trade rules and have slowly but steadily opened their markets in those economic sectors (especially manufactures and services) where industrialized countries have much to gain.Having reaped enormous profits from free trade in those areas where they enjoy a distinct comparative advantage, developed countries violate procedural justice whenever they curtail or suppress the liberalization of markets in which they have a comparative disadvantage. This is exactly what the European Union, Japan and the U. S. have done in food markets, making poor countries unable fully to reap the gains of their comparative advantage (agricultural crops). The industrialized nations have steadfastly refused to open up trade in farm goods in an effort to protect farmers from being displaced by global trade. Works Cited:* Jorge, Niosi & Majlinda, Zhequ. â€Å"Aerospace Clusters: Local or Global Knowledge Spillovers? † March 2005. . * Virgin, Bill. â€Å"Global Economy Complicates Outsourcing. † Seattlepi. com. 24 January 2006. . * Lee, Dwight R. â€Å"Comparative Advantage Continued† The Freeman: Ideas on Liberty – October 1999. http://www. fee. org/publications/the-freeman/article. asp? aid=4962. * Wikipedia.